We focus on the latter, investigating more closely who got bailed out. Rapid progress with vaccines notwithstanding, the UK government's response to COVID-19 has been associated with much controversy, not only because of an extraordinarily high death rate, but also because of allegations of cronyism around the granting of government contracts and bailouts. As the literature on variegated capitalism alerts us, governments and other actors regularly devise fixes in response to a systemic crisis, but the focus, scale and scope of the interventions vary considerably, according to the constellation of interests. However, state capitalism does not necessarily serve broad developmental purposes, and rather can be directed to supporting sectional and private interests. The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in governments playing increasingly prominent roles as active economic agents. This might suggest that the eco-systemic dominance of the latter is coming to an end, or, at the least, that this model is drifting towards one that assumes many of the features commonly associated with developing nations. Although, as with state capitalism, crony capitalism is most often associated with emerging markets, we conclude that the two have coalesced into a peculiarly British variety, but one that has some common features with other major liberal markets. However, the latter also favored the politically influential and those who had run up debt profligately. hospitality, transportation) and larger employers were more likely to get bailouts. We find that badly affected sectors (e.g.
As the literature on variegated capitalism alerts us, governments and other actors regularly devise fixes in response to a systemic crisis, but the focus, scale, and scope of the interventions vary considerably, according to the constellation of interests. Since the choice of the database and the resulting measurement of policy density ultimately depend on the questions posed by researchers, we conclude by discussing whether some questions are better answered by some measurements than others. For the first time, we compare the patterns of policy density within each database (2000-2019) and reveal that while they are different, they are nonetheless potentially complementary. However, our empirical comparison also reveals differences between the measurements with regard to the degree of policy expansion and sectoral coverage, which are due to differences in the type of policies in the databases. All three measurements show an upward trend in the adoption of climate policy. In this contribution, we argue that policy ambition can be captured by the level of national policy activity, which in accordance with the existing literature should be referred to as "policy density." In this study, we measure climate policy density by drawing on three publicly available databases. National policy ambition plays a central role in climate change governance under the Paris Agreement and is now a focus of rapidly emerging literature.
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